Paestum

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Paestum, located in the Campania region of southern Italy, is an ancient Greco-Roman city that is renowned for its well-preserved Greek temples and rich historical heritage. Founded by the Greeks in the 6th century BC as Poseidonia, it was later occupied by the Romans in the 3rd century BC and renamed Paestum.

The most striking features of Paestum are its three massive Doric temples, which are among the best-preserved ancient Greek temples in the world. They were dedicated to Hera and Athena, and their grandeur and architectural sophistication attract scholars, historians, and tourists from around the globe. The site also includes Roman ruins, such as a forum, amphitheater, and city walls, illustrating the layers of history that have contributed to the area’s development over centuries.

Apart from its archaeological significance, Paestum is also known for its tomb paintings, which provide invaluable insights into the life and beliefs of its ancient inhabitants. The Tomb of the Diver, for example, is famous for its frescoes that depict scenes of a funeral banquet and a diver, symbolizing the passage from life to death.

The Paestum archaeological park and museum offer visitors a chance to explore these ancient ruins and artifacts, providing a window into the ancient world of the Greeks and Romans in Italy. The surrounding area, with its natural beauty and proximity to the Amalfi Coast, further enhances the appeal of Paestum as a destination for those interested in history, archaeology, and the beauty of the Italian landscape.

****Describe the history and special features of the three Greek temples.

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The three Greek temples at Paestum are remarkable examples of ancient Greek architecture and are considered some of the best-preserved temples from the ancient world. Each has its own history and architectural details:

1. Temple of Hera I (also known as the Basilica): Dating back to around 550 BC, this is the oldest of the three temples. Despite being called a basilica (a term later used by the Romans to denote a public building), it is, in fact, a Greek temple dedicated to Hera, the wife of Zeus. Characterized by its nine columns across the front and eighteen along the sides, the temple’s Doric style is noted for its massive appearance and the early form of its capitals. The use of an odd number of columns at the facade, which is unusual in Greek architecture, means that the central doorway is framed by a column.
2. Temple of Hera II (also known as the Neptune Temple or Temple of Poseidon): Constructed around 460-450 BC, this temple is considered a masterpiece of Doric architecture. Although commonly attributed to Neptune/Poseidon due to an early misidentification, it was actually dedicated to Hera. It is larger and architecturally more refined than the Basilica, featuring a double row of columns inside the temple to support the roof, which was a typical feature in larger Greek temples. Its symmetry, proportions, and the elegance of its columns represent the peak of Greek architectural development in southern Italy.
3. Temple of Athena (also known as the Temple of Ceres): Built around 500 BC, this temple was dedicated to Athena, as evidenced by inscriptions and artifacts found on the site. It sits on the highest point of the city, overlooking the other temples. The Temple of Athena features a mix of Doric columns on the outside and Ionic columns within the cella (the inner chamber), indicating a transitional period in Greek architecture. Its smaller size compared to the Hera temples does not detract from its significance or the elegance of its design.

These temples are special not only for their architectural beauty and preservation but also for what they represent about Greek society, religion, and technological advancement. They demonstrate the Greeks’ skill in creating structures that were not only functional for their religious practices but also aesthetically remarkable, designed to withstand the test of time. The site of Paestum, with these temples, provides an invaluable insight into Magna Graecia – the areas of southern Italy that were colonized by Greek settlers from the 8th century BC onward, blending Greek culture with the indigenous Italian societies.

****Explain Greek building techniques.

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Ancient Greek architecture is celebrated for its technical sophistication, beauty, and harmony. The Greeks developed several building techniques and architectural styles, notably the Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian orders, each with its own distinctive proportions and decorative elements. Here’s an overview of some key aspects of Greek building techniques:

1. Materials

• Stone: The Greeks commonly used limestone and marble for their major structures. Marble, with its fine quality and aesthetic appeal, was preferred for grand temples and public buildings, especially in the Classical period.
• Wood: Timber was used for structural elements such as roofs, beams, and columns in earlier buildings. Wooden roofs were covered with clay tiles.
• Clay and Terracotta: Used for roof tiles and decorative elements like antefixes and metopes.
• Metal: Iron and bronze were used for structural reinforcement, such as dowels and clamps, to hold stone blocks together.

2. Construction Techniques

• Masonry: Greeks mastered the art of masonry, cutting stones precisely to fit together without mortar in most cases. This technique, known as “ashlar masonry,” ensured the stability and durability of the structure.
• Post and Lintel: This fundamental technique involved placing a horizontal beam (lintel) across two vertical supports (posts or columns). This principle was widely used in Greek architecture, from temples to public buildings.
• Entasis: A slight bulging of columns toward the middle, entasis corrected the optical illusion of concavity that straight columns exhibited. This subtle curvature gave Greek columns a sense of dynamism and perfection.
• Optical Refinements: Greeks employed several optical refinements to correct visual distortions. For example, the Parthenon’s columns lean inward slightly, and its stylobate (the platform on which the columns stand) curves upward at the center. These adjustments prevented the appearance of sagging and ensured the buildings looked straight and harmonious from all angles.

3. Architectural Orders

• Doric Order: Characterized by sturdy columns with fluted shafts and simple, rounded capitals. The Doric entablature includes a plain architrave, a frieze with triglyphs and metopes, and a cornice. It’s the oldest and simplest of the Greek architectural orders.
• Ionic Order: Identified by slender, fluted columns with scrolled capitals (volutes). The Ionic entablature is more elaborate than the Doric, with a continuous frieze that could be decorated with reliefs.
• Corinthian Order: Similar in proportion to the Ionic but more ornate, featuring capitals decorated with acanthus leaves. The Corinthian order was used sparingly in Greece but became popular in Roman architecture.

4. Decoration and Sculpture

Greek buildings often featured decorative sculptures, especially in temple pediments, metopes, and friezes. These sculptures depicted scenes from mythology, religious rituals, and historical events. The Greeks also painted their buildings and sculptures, although most of the paint has not survived.

Conclusion

Greek building techniques showcased not only an advanced understanding of materials and structural principles but also an unparalleled attention to aesthetic detail and optical effects. These techniques allowed the Greeks to create buildings of remarkable beauty and durability, many of which have endured as iconic monuments of ancient architecture.

****Describe briefly the history of Magna Graecia.

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Magna Graecia, which translates to “Great Greece,” refers to the areas of southern Italy that were colonized by Greek settlers from the 8th to the 5th centuries BC. This period of colonization began as a result of overpopulation and social strife in mainland Greece, prompting Greeks to establish new settlements abroad where fertile lands and trade opportunities were abundant. The regions that comprised Magna Graecia included parts of the modern Italian regions of Calabria, Apulia, Basilicata, Campania, and Sicily.

The Greek settlers brought with them their culture, language, and traditions, establishing cities that would become major centers of Greek art, science, and philosophy. Some of the most notable cities in Magna Graecia included Syracuse, Tarentum (modern Taranto), Croton (modern Crotone), and Paestum. These cities became prosperous through agriculture, trade, and the production of goods such as olive oil and wine.

The influence of Greek civilization in these areas was profound, contributing significantly to the development of Roman culture and society in later centuries. The Romans absorbed many aspects of Greek culture, including art, religion, and philosophy, which they encountered as they expanded their control over the Italian peninsula.

However, the prosperity of the Greek cities in Magna Graecia eventually attracted the attention of more powerful neighbors, leading to conflicts with indigenous Italic tribes, Carthaginians, and eventually the Romans. By the end of the 3rd century BC, after the Pyrrhic War and the Punic Wars, most of the Greek cities in southern Italy had come under Roman control, marking the end of Magna Graecia as a distinct group of Greek polities. Despite this, the legacy of Greek culture in southern Italy remained influential for centuries, contributing to the rich cultural tapestry of the Roman Empire and beyond.

****One of the most important collections in National Museum of Paestum is the tomb of the diver, describe it in detail.

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The Tomb of the Diver is one of the most significant and intriguing artifacts housed in the National Museum of Paestum. Dating from about 470-460 BC, this tomb is unique among Greek burial sites found in Italy or Greece, primarily because of its painted scenes, which are rare examples of Greek painting from this period with parallels more commonly found in Etruscan art.

The tomb itself is a small stone chamber, designed to mimic a wooden structure, and was discovered in 1968 during excavations near Paestum. It is an example of a klinai tomb, a type of burial which includes a dining couch, reflecting the Greek custom of funerary banquets. What sets the Tomb of the Diver apart is its painted decoration, which covers the underside of the covering slab and the four interior walls.

The Paintings

1. The Covering Slab: The most famous image, from which the tomb gets its name, is found on the underside of the tomb’s covering slab. It depicts a solitary figure diving into a stream of water, stretching out his arms as if to embrace the unknown. This scene is widely interpreted as a symbol of the soul’s journey from life to death, representing the passage into the afterlife.
2. Interior Wall Paintings: The four walls inside the tomb are painted with scenes of a funerary banquet, reflecting the social practices associated with Greek funerals at the time. These scenes show reclining men at a symposium, a traditional Greek drinking party, surrounded by music, dance, and companionship. The guests are depicted reclining on couches, sipping wine, and enjoying the company of others, which symbolizes the deceased’s journey to the afterlife as a peaceful and communal passage.

Significance

The significance of the Tomb of the Diver lies not only in its unique depiction of human figures and funeral rites from the Classical period but also in its profound representation of ancient Greek beliefs about death and the afterlife. The diver’s leap, interpreted as a metaphor for the soul’s journey into the afterlife, offers a rare and poignant insight into the ancient Greek psyche, emphasizing themes of transition, transformation, and the embrace of the unknown.

The tomb’s paintings are also significant for their artistic value, providing one of the few surviving examples of Greek wall painting from this era. Their preservation and the insights they offer into Greek funerary practices make the Tomb of the Diver a centerpiece of the National Museum of Paestum and a key artifact for understanding ancient Greek culture and art.

****Any other important collection?

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In addition to the Tomb of the Diver, the National Museum of Paestum houses several other important collections that offer insights into the ancient city’s rich history and cultural heritage. These collections encompass a wide range of artifacts, including sculptures, pottery, and other finds from the archaeological site of Paestum and its surroundings. Here are some highlights:

1. Metopes from the Heraion at the mouth of the Sele: These are sculpted panels that once adorned a temple dedicated to Hera, located near the mouth of the Sele River, close to Paestum. Dating from the 6th century BC, these metopes depict various mythological scenes and are important examples of early Greek relief sculpture.
2. Greek Pottery: The museum boasts an extensive collection of ancient Greek pottery, including black-figure and red-figure vases, which were used for various purposes, such as storage, drinking, and as grave goods. These vases are decorated with scenes from mythology, daily life, and athletic contests, providing valuable insights into the beliefs, practices, and aesthetics of ancient Greek society.
3. Lucanian Frescoes: From the later period when the Lucanians, an Italic tribe, controlled Paestum, the museum contains a collection of frescoes that decorated the walls of Lucanian tombs. These frescoes, dating from the 4th century BC, offer a glimpse into the funerary practices and artistic traditions of the Lucanian people.
4. Architectural Fragments: The museum houses a collection of architectural fragments from the temples and other buildings of Paestum, including capitals, column drums, and friezes. These pieces illustrate the architectural styles and construction techniques of the ancient Greeks and provide a tangible connection to the monumental buildings that once stood on the site.
5. Sculptures and Inscriptions: The museum also has a collection of sculptures and inscriptions from Paestum, including statues of gods and goddesses, grave markers, and dedicatory inscriptions. These artifacts shed light on the religious beliefs, social structures, and linguistic practices of the city’s inhabitants.

These collections, together with the Tomb of the Diver, make the National Museum of Paestum an invaluable resource for understanding the history, art, and culture of ancient Paestum and the wider region of Magna Graecia. The museum’s artifacts span the Greek, Lucanian, and Roman periods of the city’s history, offering a comprehensive overview of its development over centuries.

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To visit Paestum by public transport, one could base either at Naples or Amalfi ( with one more bus transit, but lots more pleasant to stay). It’s a must for anyone interested in archaeological sites.